Reza Yari; Seyedeh Mahbubeh Mirmiran; Yaser Ghasemi Aryan; Esfandiar Jahantab
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 337-351
Abstract
Background and ObjectiveExcessive, unprincipled, and over-capacity use has resulted in the destruction and gradual reduction of rangeland productive capacity. Consequently, the diverse and multi-functional utilization of rangelands reduces livestock pressure, preserves and restores vegetation cover, ...
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Background and ObjectiveExcessive, unprincipled, and over-capacity use has resulted in the destruction and gradual reduction of rangeland productive capacity. Consequently, the diverse and multi-functional utilization of rangelands reduces livestock pressure, preserves and restores vegetation cover, creates employment opportunities, and increases the income of rangeland users. Beekeeping represents an important aspect of the multi-purpose use of rangelands, which, in addition to producing honey and a variety of other by-products, plays a significant ecological role in pollination and in supporting the survival of agricultural, forest, and rangeland products. It also contributes to increasing beneficiaries' income and improving the overall economic situation of rural residents.MethodologyThis research was conducted to assess the ecological and economic potential of beekeeping within the Jahannama rangelands of Golestan Province. After gathering baseline information, a systematic inventory of plant species was conducted during the entire growing season. The family, scientific name, Persian name, and flowering duration of all identified species were determined using available botanical resources. The research type was applied, and the research approach was quantitative. The data collection instrument consisted of a structured questionnaire, relying on available sources and direct interviews with all beekeepers in the region, numbering 15 individuals. The questionnaire included variables related to inputs consumed, labor (person-days), consumption quantity (kilograms), production input prices (rials), income, production costs, production quantity and price, the number of days and months of rangeland usage, and the beneficiaries’ satisfaction with the vegetation cover of the rangelands for beekeeping purposes. The questionnaire's validity was verified through the opinions of specialists and experienced experts; however, the questionnaire's reliability was estimated using the Cronbach’s alpha method (0.81) in SPSS. Finally, to estimate the profit obtained from rangelands for beekeeping, the indexing method based on the marginal product value approach and the relationship between the number of days of rangeland use, the release of honeybees, and honey production was applied.ResultsAltogether, 134 species of nectar-producing and pollen-producing plants from 80 genera and 31 families were identified in the area. The families Asteraceae (29 species), Lamiaceae (23 species), and Fabaceae (19 species) exhibited the highest abundance. Regarding attractiveness classes, 28, 39, 43, 21, and 3 species were assigned to attractiveness classes 1-5, respectively. More than 64 percent of the identified species were both nectar and pollen producers. Based on regular field observations, the flowering period of plant species ranged from May to September. The majority of plant species (52 species) flowered from June to August, while 20 species flowered from July to August. Therefore, the months of June through August constitute the most suitable period for establishing beehives in these rangelands. The findings revealed that, because the flowering duration of most nectar- and pollen-producing species in the rangelands is 93 days (June–August) and the average number of rangeland utilization days is 74 days, the total economic value of the rangeland—which includes the combined value of all ecosystem services and goods provided by the rangeland system, such as forage, medicinal plants, ecotourism, regulatory services, and other benefits, of which the economic value derived specifically from beekeeping constitutes just one part—was considerable. Therefore, the total value of the rangelands for beekeeping, considering the number of exploitation days and the daily price of honey based on 2023 rates (645,000 Tomans), was calculated to be 13,754,560,500 Rials, and the economic value of beekeeping was estimated as 1,551,438.9 Rials per hectare.ConclusionIn general, the results demonstrate that these rangelands, due to the presence of numerous plant species, predominantly fall within attractiveness classes I through III, possess suitable and substantial potential for the development of beekeeping activities and for the consequent increase in economic income. This valuable natural resource can be utilized, along with providing forage for livestock, thereby contributing to improved livelihoods and enhanced economic well-being for beneficiaries.
Sanaz Yousefvand; Ardavan Ghorbani; Mina Hosseinnejad Jadidi; Mehdi Moameri; Akbar Qavidel; Farid Deljo; Narjes Rostami
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 352-373
Abstract
Background and objectivesThe pressure of livestock grazing on rangelands and the increasing degradation of these ecosystems can have destructive effects on soil characteristics. Methods for improving degraded soils include increasing rangeland fertility, enhancing soil stability, and reducing trampling ...
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Background and objectivesThe pressure of livestock grazing on rangelands and the increasing degradation of these ecosystems can have destructive effects on soil characteristics. Methods for improving degraded soils include increasing rangeland fertility, enhancing soil stability, and reducing trampling by restricting livestock grazing. Exclosure is widely used as a natural regeneration strategy to improve vegetation conditions, soil fertility, and conservation outcomes in rangeland restoration and improvement programs. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of exclosure on soil parameters, including electrical conductivity, absorbable potassium, absorbable phosphorus, organic carbon, total nitrogen, and soil reaction. Biological parameters, including basal microbial respiration, stimulated microbial respiration, microbial carbon, metabolic quotient, and soil microbial and enzymatic activities (alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase, and urease) were measured both inside and outside the Shoghaldareh exclosure in Nemin County.MethodologyTo conduct this study, the Shoghaldareh exclosure located in Nemin County (Ardabil Province) was selected. A total of 18 soil samples were collected from six sites (3 inside and 3outside the exclosure) at a depth of 5–20 cm. Samples were randomly taken along three 100-m transects (from the beginning, middle, and end of each transect, which were subsequently mixed to form one composite sample). Each transect was established 50 m apart. Collected samples were transferred to the laboratory in refrigerated containers and stored at –80°C until analyses were performed. The investigated parameters included soil texture (sand, clay, and silt), electrical conductivity, absorbable potassium, absorbable phosphorus, organic carbon, total nitrogen, soil reaction, basal microbial respiration, stimulated microbial respiration, microbial carbon, metabolic quotient, soil microbial quotient, and the activities of alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase, and urease. Data analysis was carried out separately for the two areas (inside and outside the exclosure) using an independent two-sample t-test. Data normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and correlations among soil characteristics were evaluated using Pearson’s coefficient in SPSS Ver. 22.ResultsThe results indicated that the studied area had a sandy loam texture. A significant difference at the 5% probability level was observed between the inside and outside of the exclosure, such that the clay and silt contents inside the exclosure were 9.88% and 32.77%, respectively, while sand content was 63.88% higher outside the exclosure. Electrical conductivity, organic carbon, potassium (saturated extract), acidity, absorbable phosphorus, and total nitrogen showed the highest values outside the exclosure. All biological parameters, except metabolic quotient, exhibited significant differences between the interior and exterior of the exclosure. The highest levels of basal microbial respiration, stimulated microbial respiration, and microbial quotient—corresponding to 0.32 and 1.96 mg CO₂ g⁻¹ day⁻¹ and 1.2 mg Cmic g⁻¹ C org—were recorded inside the exclosure; whereas microbial biomass carbon (513.80 mg Cmic g⁻¹) belonged to the area outside the exclosure. Inside the exclosure, silt and sand percentages showed a positive correlation, whereas clay percentage had a negative correlation with the metabolic quotient. Available phosphorus exhibited a positive correlation with nitrogen, organic carbon, and the microbial quotient. Nitrogen was positively correlated with organic carbon, the metabolic quotient, and the microbial quotient. Basal and induced respiration were positively correlated, and organic carbon showed a positive correlation with both the metabolic and microbial quotients. In contrast, pH had a negative correlation with the microbial quotient and microbial biomass carbon. Outside the exclosure, clay percentage showed a positive correlation with available phosphorus, whereas silt and sand showed negative correlations. Nitrogen exhibited a positive correlation with organic carbon. Basal respiration had a positive correlation with induced respiration and microbial biomass carbon, and induced respiration was positively correlated with microbial biomass carbon. The metabolic quotient had a positive correlation with the microbial quotient, while microbial biomass carbon showed a negative correlation with the metabolic quotient. Regarding enzymatic activities, the highest values of dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and urease—2.85 µg TPF g⁻¹ dm 16 h⁻¹, 585.71 µg pNP g⁻¹ dm h⁻¹, and 238.79 µg N g⁻¹ dm, respectively—were recorded inside the exclosure.ConclusionExcessive grazing in Iran’s rangelands reduces the input of plant residues into the soil and alters chemical, biological, and soil enzymatic properties. This reduction in organic matter and disruption of microbial activity decreases soil fertility. The findings of this research demonstrate that implementing grazing exclosure improves soil biological activities, including increased enzymatic activity and microbial respiration, within the excluded area. Furthermore, positive changes in soil texture, particularly increases in clay and silt contents, were observed. Although a slight decrease in certain soil nutrients and microbial populations occurred within the exclosure, these changes were likely influenced by wildlife grazing patterns and ultimately contributed to establishing a sustainable, balanced ecosystem with optimized long-term functioning. Therefore, the results underscore the important role of grazing exclosure management in enhancing the health and sustainability of natural ecosystems.
mehdi ghorbani; Seyed Amir Hosein Garakani; Aida Heidari; Samira Mohammadian; Sajad Amiri
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 374-391
Abstract
Background and ObjectivesSustainable natural resource management in arid regions necessitates adopting novel approaches like participatory governance, which emphasizes interaction and collaboration among diverse stakeholders. In this context, organizational cohesion, as an indicator of coordination and ...
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Background and ObjectivesSustainable natural resource management in arid regions necessitates adopting novel approaches like participatory governance, which emphasizes interaction and collaboration among diverse stakeholders. In this context, organizational cohesion, as an indicator of coordination and interconnectedness among relevant entities, plays a fundamental role in facilitating participatory processes. This research aims to analyze the dynamics of organizational cohesion in Taftan County and investigate the impact of implementing development plans on it, utilizing the Social Network Analysis (SNA) method. By doing so, it seeks to provide a clearer picture of how institutional cohesion contributes to achieving participatory resource governance in arid environments.MethodologyThis study employs the Social Network Analysis (SNA) approach to examine the structure of relationships and interaction patterns among organizations and institutions involved in implementing the Rural Development and Progress Plan in Taftan County, which plays a vital role in the participatory and sustainable governance of the region's rangeland and desert resources. For this purpose, the relationships among 25 relevant organizations involved in this plan were studied across two time points: before its implementation (2021) and after its implementation (2023). The organizations under study were identified through a review of relevant documents related to the Rural Development and Progress Plan for rural complexes, using a full network sampling method. Data on the level of information exchange and collaboration among these organizations were collected via a questionnaire utilizing a 5-point Likert scale. The collected data were converted into a binary matrix (zero and one) and processed using Excel for preparation and UCINET for network analysis. To analyze the network structure and its characteristics, various SNA macro-level indicators including density, centralization (in-degree and out-degree), reciprocity, transitivity, and average geodesic distance were calculated, and their changes over time were evaluated.ResultsThe results of the social network analysis indicated that, following the implementation of the rural development and progress plan in Taftan County, significant changes occurred in the structure of the organizational relationship network. Network density increased from 42% before the project to 59% after the project, indicating an expanded level of communication and interaction among organizations for better coordination in natural resource management. Furthermore, the reciprocity of ties significantly increased from 28% to 59%, reflecting the formation of more reciprocal and stable relationships among network actors in information exchange and collaboration pertinent to natural resources. Conversely, degree centralization decreased in both in-degree and out-degree networks; out-degree centralization dropped from 63.9% to 52.8%, and in-degree centralization fell from 24.8% to 22.4%. This signifies a more balanced distribution of power and influence within the network and increased participation of more organizations in natural resource-related decision-making processes. In addition, the increase in network transitivity from 32% to 43% and the reduction in average geodesic distance from 1.33 to 1.25 clearly demonstrate improved structural cohesion and accelerated information and knowledge exchange among active organizations in the region. These positive structural changes enhance the organizational network's potential to respond cohesively to natural resource management challenges and advance the goals of collaborative governance in this domain.ConclusionThe findings of this research indicate that the implementation of the rural development and progress plan in Taftan County, by creating positive changes in the structural indicators of the organizational relationship network, has significantly contributed to strengthening organizational cohesion towards effective participatory governance in the management of this region's resources. Future research could delve deeper into the mechanisms creating these changes and their impact on the tangible outcomes of resource management and rural development in Taftan County.
Javad Motamedi; Esmaeil Sheidai-Karkaj
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 392-406
Abstract
Background and objectivesVarious indicators are used to assess, evaluate, and quantify the effectiveness of desertification control projects. One of the newer and more comprehensive indicators is the ecosystem multi-functionality index. Ecosystem multifunctionality emphasizes that ecosystems simultaneously ...
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Background and objectivesVarious indicators are used to assess, evaluate, and quantify the effectiveness of desertification control projects. One of the newer and more comprehensive indicators is the ecosystem multi-functionality index. Ecosystem multifunctionality emphasizes that ecosystems simultaneously provide multiple functions and services, and that their integrated, comprehensive assessment offers a much greater advantage than examining each function individually. This index reflects each ecological site's overall ability to sustain high levels of multiple ecosystem processes simultaneously. A higher numerical value for this index indicates that desertification control operations, particularly through the planting of different plant species, have produced an additive and synergistic effect on ecosystem functioning. The present study introduced and applied this index to assess the effectiveness of desertification control projects at different ecological zones located along the soil salinity gradient on the western margin of Lake Urmia.MethodologyInitially, 12 sites across three ecological zones were selected along a 1500-meter gradient. At each site, fifteen 2-m² grid plots were established along a 150-meter transect at 10-meter intervals, and the canopy cover and aerial biomass of understory plants were measured within these plots. Additionally, along each transect, 15 stands of the species Nitraria schoberi, planted in 10-m² grids since 2013 as part of desertification control efforts, were identified, and their plant traits were recorded as ecosystem-related characteristics. Soil samples were also collected along each transect at the beginning, middle, and end points, from a depth of 20 cm, to evaluate the relationship between the distribution of understory vegetation and the plant traits of N. schoberi stands with soil properties. Redundancy Analysis (RDA) was then used to investigate the relationships between N. schoberi plant traits, understory vegetation attributes, habitat characteristics, and the spatial distribution of sites in the soil-parameter space. To calculate the ecosystem multi-functionality index, ecological data in all sites were normalized across all variables, and standardized scores were integrated and averaged to obtain the final multi-functionality value. After calculating the index for each site, its correlation with soil characteristics was examined, and the most influential variables determining the index values were identified. The index across the ecological zones were also compared to determine the superior zone in terms of ecosystem multi-functionality.ResultsAccording to the results, the values of plant traits in N. schoberi stands increased along the salinity gradient from the first zone (farthest from the salinity focus) to the third zone (closest to the salinity focus). However, the percentage of dry stands, the values of understory vegetation attributes, and the rangeland condition class were higher in the first zone than in the third zone. Consequently, the magnitude of the ecosystem multi-functionality index—derived from the magnitude of plant traits—increased progressively from the first to the third zone. As the salinity focus was approached, the values of Sand, Mg, and Ca increased, whereas Clay, N, OM, and Silt increased in the opposite direction. Bulk density (BD) and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) did not play a significant role in distinguishing sites along the salinity gradient. The ecosystem multi-functionality index exhibited the strongest positive correlation with the percentage of sand, sodium, sodium adsorption ratio, and exchangeable sodium percentage—variables aligned with the ecological requirements of N. schoberi. Therefore, N. schoberi grew more successfully in the third ecological zone, where soils were sandy and light-textured. The index showed the strongest negative correlation with percentages of silt, organic carbon, and available phosphorus. Thus, in the first and second ecological zones, where soils were clayey and heavy, N. schoberi exhibited reduced growth and smaller plant-trait values. As a result, the multi-functionality index in these zones was also lower than in the third zone.ConclusionThe ability of ecological sites to maintain high levels of ecosystem processes in response to desertification control operations is not uniform across zones. The numerical value of the ecosystem multi-functionality index indicates that desertification control interventions using N. schoberi on the western edge of Lake Urmia had a greater positive effect on ecosystem functioning in the third ecological zone—closer to the salinity focus where soils are sandy and light—while this effect was markedly lower in the first and second zones, which are farther from the salinity source and characterized by heavy, clayey soils.
Ali Akbar Damavandi
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 407-426
Abstract
Background and ObjectiveDrought assessment is crucial for the effective management of water resources and agricultural products, aiming to develop strategies to reduce the loss of these vital resources. Drought assessment indicators are essential tools for evaluating this process, and selecting the appropriate ...
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Background and ObjectiveDrought assessment is crucial for the effective management of water resources and agricultural products, aiming to develop strategies to reduce the loss of these vital resources. Drought assessment indicators are essential tools for evaluating this process, and selecting the appropriate indicator is indispensable for accurate drought assessment. Indicators are quantitative measures that can be used to determine the severity and extent of droughts numerically. According to existing literature, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and the Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) are the most common and widely used drought assessment indicators. Therefore, comparing these two indices is very important to understand their differences and distinctions. On the other hand, one of the limitations of station-based indices is their inadequate spatial coverage. In contrast, satellite-based indices eliminate the limitations of point-based methods. For this purpose, satellite-based drought indices such as NDVI and VHI were developed. The objective of this research is to compare the effectiveness of SPI and SPEI indices in drought assessment based on remote sensing data in areas with natural vegetation and rainfed agriculture. Eliminating the impact of stations located in irrigated agriculture areas in southern Tehran province and its impact on the results of drought indicators is one of the innovations of this research.MethodologyTehran province is characterized by diverse topography, varying climatic conditions, and different land uses. The northern and eastern parts of the province feature natural grasslands, while the southern region is used mainly for irrigated agriculture. In this study, meteorological drought indices, SPI and SPEI, were calculated based on precipitation and evapotranspiration data from 31 meteorological stations over a twenty-year period from 2000 to 2019. The choice of this timeframe was due to data availability constraints for precipitation, evapotranspiration, and the MODIS sensor data, which have been accessible since 2000. The relationship between these two indices was generally examined, with a focus on the Southern stations (due to errors caused by irrigation practices affecting vegetation coverage during drought periods). A three-month period ending in June was considered for both indices. To evaluate the accuracy and performance of the SPI and SPEI indices, the Vegetation Health Index (VHI), a satellite-based drought index, was extracted using MODIS products at the station locations and calculated from NDVI and LST values.ResultsThe results indicated a stronger statistical correlation between SPI and SPEI after excluding the stations in southern Tehran (where irrigated agriculture is dominant), with the coefficient of determination increasing from 0.65 to 0.86. This suggests that land use significantly influences evapotranspiration values in southern stations, thereby affecting the accuracy of the SPEI index.Overall, SPI showed a higher correlation with remote sensing drought indicators such as NDVI, VCI, TCI, and VHI. After removing stations in Parndak, Baqerabad, Javadabad, Golkhandan, Ghanjabad, and Hamamk, the relationships between SPI and SPEI and the remote sensing drought indicators were re-evaluated, revealing an increase in model accuracy (coefficients of determination from 0.40 to 0.55 for SPI and from 0.33 to 0.54 for SPEI). The comparison of SPI and SPEI further demonstrated the superior performance of SPEI in areas with dry farming practices.ConclusionResults of this study indicated that considering land use types and cultivation methods is essential for improving the effectiveness of SPI and SPEI. Results suggest that SPEI is more effective where higher evapotranspiration occurs, whereas land use diversity reduces the accuracy of relationships between meteorological and satellite-based drought indicators. Developing tailored indices for each land use type could be a promising approach for future research.
Masoumeh Pazoki; Seyed Jafar Seyed Akhlaghi; Seyed Alireza Hosseini
Volume 32, Issue 4 , December 2025, Pages 427-442
Abstract
Background and ObjectiveWater is regarded as one of the fundamental pillars underpinning the sustainability of arid and desert ecosystems. In these ecologically sensitive environments, sustainable water resource management necessitates the adoption of context-specific policies and the active engagement ...
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Background and ObjectiveWater is regarded as one of the fundamental pillars underpinning the sustainability of arid and desert ecosystems. In these ecologically sensitive environments, sustainable water resource management necessitates the adoption of context-specific policies and the active engagement of local communities. Nevertheless, indigenous knowledge rooted in cumulative lived experiences and adaptive nature-based mechanisms is frequently marginalized in formal development planning and policymaking processes. The present study aims to identify and elucidate the structure and dimensions of indigenous knowledge related to water resource management in Shahroud County, a region confronted with environmental challenges such as soil and water salinization, declining precipitation, and land subsidence.MethodologyThis research employed a qualitative design grounded in the Grounded Theory methodology as proposed by Strauss and Corbin. The study population consisted of local experts, experienced farmers, and professionals in the fields of natural resources and environmental management, selected through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Data were collected through 25 in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted until theoretical saturation was achieved. The data were analyzed through the systematic processes of open, axial, and selective coding to construct a paradigmatic model of indigenous knowledge for sustainable water resource management.ResultsThe results indicate that the core phenomenon of synergy and integration of indigenous and modern knowledge provides a fundamental basis for the sustainable management of water resources in Shahroud County. The commitment and self-awareness of local communities regarding the amount and allocation of water resources, along with their intergenerational knowledge in the field of water resources, have created a solid foundation for the protection of these resources. Despite challenges posed by youth migration and technological change, indigenous knowledge remains vital for local adaptation. Indigenous knowledge, which includes a deep understanding of rainfall and drought patterns, has remained a valuable and influential asset.Local social structures, such as customary agreements on equitable water distribution and turn-taking systems, play a crucial role in the equitable distribution of resources. Government institutions and local organizations play a key role in strengthening knowledge and resource management by investing in the restoration of canals, developing infrastructure, and enhancing the capacity of policymakers. Integrating indigenous knowledge and modern knowledge through participatory strategies, continuous education, and intelligent exploitation, while increasing productivity and maintaining ecological balance, strengthens social cohesion and the sustainability of the rural population and paves the way for sustainable development. Success in managing Shahrood County's water resources requires a comprehensive approach that links contextual and intervening conditions alongside indigenous knowledge capacities and institutional support.ConclusionThe findings underscore that the indigenous knowledge system in the desert regions of Shahroud County represents not merely a repository of experiential knowledge but an efficient and contextually grounded framework for local water governance. Core components such as environmental empiricism, continuity of traditional management practices, and value-oriented approaches to resource utilization constitute pivotal foundations for designing participatory policies and promoting sustainable development in the domain of water resource management.
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